"Afghanistan is an interesting case when it comes to digital infrastructure. As the following sections will explore, internet connectivity has been heavily marked by the years of war and conflict and shifting strategies of the DFA. Backed by foreign investments, the internet infrastructure has been ... built and expanded, thus allowing for an ongoing digitalisation with potential for both emancipation as well as repression. In other words, Afghanistan constitutes a core context for understanding how different parts of the digital infrastructure can be used as means of control and how this should be addressed in international development strategies. This study is, therefore, meant to inform international development agencies, nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) and government institutions seeking to support Afghan citizens’ digital access inside Afghanistan. The mappings and analyses presented in this study are based on a comprehensive collection of data on internet use and other key indicators of digitalisation, on news articles and reports, and on journalistic research on current conditions for civilians in Afghanistan. As we discuss throughout the paper, statistical data is not always up to date. Sometimes, it is entirely absent. This not only exacerbates the general challenge of measuring the distribution of internet technologies and their use but also speaks to the important need for advancing methods and data sources for monitoring digitalisation, especially in development contexts." (Introduction, page 5) more