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Safeguarding Media Freedom in the Age of Big Tech Platforms and AI: Policy Manual

Anya Schiffrin, Bojana Kostic, Iva Nenadic, Julia Haas, Natali Helberger, Natali, Max van Drunen

Vienna: OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media (2025), 147 pp.

"With this Policy Manual, we provide guidance for building an information space free from oligopolistic control, resilient to manipulation, and supportive of independent, pluralistic media. This Policy Manual proposes both structural reforms and targeted mitigation measures – focusing on media vis ... more

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The Index on International Media Freedom Support 2025

Martin Scott, Mel Bunce, Shannon Maguire, Mary Myers

Centre for Journalism and Democracy University of East Anglia; University of London City St George’s (2025), 30 pp.

"The Index on International Media Freedom Support (IMFS) evaluates and ranks states based on their support for media freedom beyond their borders. It does this by analysing the contributions that countries have made to international diplomatic, financial and safety / protection initiatives that prom ... ote media freedom. The IMFS Index includes all states that are members of both the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD) Development Assistance Committee (DAC) and the Media Freedom Coalition (MFC) (30 countries). These countries have pledged to promote media freedom internationally, and the IMFS holds them accountable for these commitments. The Index draws on data from the previous calendar year (2024), except for the ODA figures, which are for 2023, due to the time lag in reporting. The IMFS Index is produced by an independent research group and is a joint project between City St George’s, University of London, and the University of East Anglia. The results of the 2025 IMFS Index highlight several well performing states: Lithuania (1st) is the highest ranked country, largely due to its diplomatic efforts, including its leadership of two multilateral initiatives. Sweden (2nd) spent a far higher proportion of its Official Development Assistance (ODA) on media development in 2023 than any other country (0.91%). It is the only country to get close to the benchmark of 1.0%, as recommended by the Forum on Information & Democracy. France (5th) is the only country to award funding to all four qualifying multilateral pooled funds in 2024. Latvia (9th) is the only country to have both an active emergency visa scheme dedicated to supporting journalists at-risk and to support a national initiative that promotes the protection and safety of media workers in exile. The IMFS Index also identifies several less encouraging trends and performances: No country performed consistently well across all three areas of diplomacy, funding and safety / protection. Almost two thirds of the 30 countries qualified for the lowest, bronze category, earning only 10 points or less. This includes four members of the G7: the United Kingdom (equal 12th), the United States (equal 12th), Italy (equal 24th) and Japan (28th). The lowest ranked countries were Japan (28th), Slovenia (equal 29th) and South Korea (equal 29th), due to their relative lack of support for diplomacy, funding and safety / protection. However, South Korea and Japan do provide support for the wider enabling environment for media freedom in their ODA spending, which is not measured by this Index. On average, the 30 states in the IMFS Index allocated just 0.16% of their ODA to media development in 2023. Thirteen countries awarded less than 0.1%, including three – Latvia (9th), Greece (21st), and Slovenia (29th) – which reported giving 0%. Only five countries had an emergency visa scheme for journalists in 2024, and only five hosted an assistance programme for journalists in exile. Twenty-one countries had neither." (Executive summary, pages 3-4) more

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Evaluating the Legal Protections for Journalists in China: Challenges and Recommendations for Strengthening Press Freedom

Zhijie Chen

Law & Economy, volume 3, issue 5 (2024), pp. 33–40

"This paper examines the current state of legal protections for journalists in China, focusing on the challenges they face and proposing comprehensive recommendations to enhance press freedom. It analyzes the historical evolution of these protections, the existing legal framework, and compares them ... more

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Protection mechanisms in Latin America: How to stregnthen the fragile shield protecting journalists

Paris: Reporters Without Borders (2024), 13 pp.

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Media freedom and journalist safety in the UK Online Safety Act

Ricki-Lee Gerbrandt

Journal of Media Law, volume 15, issue 2 (2024), pp. 179-212

"In the digital era, journalists are targeted with online abuse including serious threats of violence. These censorship tactics are a direct threat to media freedom. Although the UK Government intended to tackle online abuse of journalists in the Online Safety Act 2023, provisions fit for that purpo ... more

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Mapping Actions to Combat Online Violence against Female Journalists across the OSCE Participating States

Carla Agha Ebrahim, Annemarijn Johanna Cozijnsen

Regional Academy on the United Nations (RAUN) (2024), 56 pp.

"This paper presents an exploratory study aimed at systematically mapping the public actions taken by OSCE participating States to combat online violence against female journalists. Adopting a qualitative large N research design, the study examines national policies and initiatives across all 57 OSC ... more

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Legal Strategies for Protecting Journalists in Conflict Zones

Fatimah Sahdan, Jelena Gregorius

Interdisciplinary Studies in Society, Law, and Politics, volume 3, issue 2 (2024), pp. 25-31

"The safety of journalists in conflict zones remains a critical concern, with myriad risks stemming from both physical and digital threats. This study aims to explore the legal strategies that can effectively protect journalists in these environments, focusing on understanding the existing legal fra ... more

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“No One Is Going to Silence Me”: A Comparison of the Conditions for Press Freedom and Independent Journalism as a Prerequisite for Democracy in the United States, Sweden, and Egypt

Elin Rantakrans

In: Handbook of Applied Journalism: Theory and Practice

Leon Barkho, Jairo Alfonso Lugo-Ocando, Sadia Jamil (eds.)

Cham: Springer (2024), pp. 615-629

"This chapter looks at the status of the freedom of the press, and the legal possibilities and obstacles that affect media’s ability to hold power to account and safeguard the principles of democracy. The legal environment in countries as diverse as the United States, Egypt, and Sweden differs gre ... more

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Swedish journalists' perceptions of legal protection against unlawful online harassment

Oscar Björkenfeldt

Frontiers in Sociology, volume 8, issue 1154495 (2023), 12 pp.

"This study examined journalists' perceptions regarding the legal system's ability to protect them against online harassment. By utilizing open-ended survey responses from respondents with varying levels of trust in the legal system, the findings suggested a need for increased technical proficiency, ... more

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Weaponising the Law: Attacks on Media Freedom
Top Insights

Joel Simon, Carlos Lauría, Ona Flores

Thomson Reuters Foundation; Tow Center for Digital Journalism (2023), 50 pp.

"The purpose of this report is to provide the first step towards a global overview of the weaponization of the law as a prominent threat to media freedom. In doing so, we offer a resource that can be used to empower those seeking to navigate the shifting legal environment and support those working t ... more

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International organizations that protect journalists' rights in international law

Orifjonov Shokhrukhbek Joraboy o'g'li

Proceedings of International Conference on Scientific Research in Natural and Social Sciences, volume 2, issue 6 (2023), pp. 184–190

"The protection of journalists' rights is critical for the preservation of freedom of expression, the rule of law, and democracy. International organizations play a crucial role in ensuring the safety and well-being of journalists worldwide. This article examines the international legal framework th ... more

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Protecting journalists from harassment: Comparing existing protection mechanisms and the effects on democracy

Alice Baroni, Leen d’Haenens, Wai Han Lo

In: Success and failure in news media performance: Comparative analysis in the Media for Democracy Monitor 2021

Josef Trappel, Tales Tomaz (eds.)

Gothenburg: Nordicom (2022), pp. 59-77

"There is a quickly increasing body of studies and reports on harassment and intimidation of journalists around the world. These series of acts have a chilling effect on media freedom and journalists’ freedom of expression. The research literature on the topic has mostly focused on intimidation an ... more

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The Universal Periodic Review (UPR) and its Potential to Foster Freedom of Expression, Access to Information and Safety of Journalists: Guidelines for National Human Rights Institutions (NHRIs)

Hina Jilani

Paris: UNESCO (2022), 15 pp.

"These UNESCO guidelines aim to provide practical support to National Human Rights Institutions (NHRIs) on the use of the UPR process to improve freedom of opinion and expression, safety of journalists, and access to information and to strengthen their capacity to engage with the process in all its ... more

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Protecting the Messenger: An International Humanitarian Law Perspective

Sebastian Kasper

Journal of Mediation and Applied Conflict Analysis, volume 8, issue 1 (2022), pp. 38-58

"The war in and against Ukraine has brought home the importance of accurate, trustworthy reporting — even from dangerous places. In mediation, particularly mediation arising from armed conflict, it is difficult to overstate the importance of accurate information to help mediate between claim and c ... more

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UNESCO’s Judges’ Initiative: Training the Custodians of the Legal System on Freedom of Expression, Access to Information and the Safety of Journalists

Guilherme Canela, Namara Burki, Samrita Menon

Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law Online, volume 25, issue 1 (2022), pp. 54-76

"Human rights, the rule of law and democracy are interlinked and mutually reinforcing. Within the framework of international human rights law, the right to freedom of expression particularly stands out, as it constitutes a pre-requisite for the fulfilment of other fundamental rights. In this regard, ... more

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Endangered Voices: Nigerian Journalists’ Safety amid the COVID-19 Pandemic

Moyosore Omowonuola Alade, Bernice Oluwalanu Sanusi

In: Health Crises and Media Discourses in Sub-Saharan Africa

Carol Azungi Dralega, Angella Napakol (eds.)

Springer (2022), pp. 109-126

"This chapter examines the difficult conditions Nigerian journalists faced while reporting during the COVID-19 pandemic, focusing on the threats and dangers faced by Nigerian broadcast journalists and its implication for journalism practice amid a pandemic. Using a qualitative approach, we conducted ... more

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Libertad de prensa: ¿cómo se regula en México?

Carlos Alberto Osorio Polo

México: Propuesta Cívica (2022), 99 pp.

"Este detallado estudio, se encuentra divido en cuatro capítulos, cada uno está dedicado a desarrollar los hallazgos encontrados en materia civil, penal, laboral y de protección, en el que se identifican los preceptos legales que no son garantes de la libertad de prensa, y que ponen en riesgo la ... more

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Media Influence Matrix Mexico: Government, Politics and Regulation

Argelia Muñoz Larroa, Rodrigo Gómez, Juan Larrosa Fuentes

London; Montevideo: Media and Journalism Research Center (MJRC); Observacom (2022), 34 pp.

"Despite the positive impact of the constitutional reform of 2013 and other previous or related regulations, media policy in Mexico is still faced with numerous challenges. Many objectives of the 2013 reform, in fact, could not be achieved because of a series of secondary laws that have been adopted ... more

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Threats to Media Freedom and Journalist’s Security as a Challenge to Implementation of Constitutional Principle of Freedom of Speech in the Council of Europe’s Member States

Alicja Jaskiernia

Przeglad Prawa Konstytucyjneo, issue 6 (2021), pp. 303-316

"Free speech and freedom of the media are essential to the functioning of democratic systems. However, recent decades have brought phenomena that pose a threat to media freedom. The author analyzed threats to media freedom and journalist’s security regarding resolution 2317 (2020) of the Parliamen ... more

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Safety of Journalists in France

Jedediah Sklower, Franck Rebillard

In: Safety of journalists in Europe: Threats and best practices to tackle them

Mária Žuffová, Roberta Carlini (eds.)

San Domenico di Fiesole: European University Institute (2021), pp. 31-42

"The 2020 law for “global security” and the National law enforcement plan (Schéma national du maintien de l’ordre), presented by the Minister of the Interior, meant to address, among other questions, the issue of the safety of journalists during demonstrations. Considering growing defiance an ... more

Weaponising the Law: Attacks on Media Freedom Top Insights

Weaponising the Law: Attacks on Media Freedom
Top Insights